The Ribosome-Binding Mode of Trichothecene Mycotoxins Rationalizes Their Structure-Activity Relationships.

Trichothecenes are the most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating cereal grains. Some of them are also considered as the virulence factors of Fusarium head blight disease. However, the mechanism behind the structure-activity relationship for trichothecenes remains unexplained. Filling this information gap is a crucial step for developing strategies to manage this large family of mycotoxins in food and feed. Here, we perform an in-depth re-examination of the existing structures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ribosome complexed with three different trichothecenes. Multiple binding interactions between trichothecenes and 25S rRNA, including hydrogen bonds, nonpolar pi stacking interactions and metal ion coordination interactions, are identified as important binding determinants. These interactions are mainly contributed by the key structural elements to the toxicity of trichothecenes, including the oxygen in the 12,13-epoxide ring and a double bond between C9 and C10. In addition, the C3-OH group also participates in binding. The comparison of three trichothecenes binding to the ribosome, along with their binding pocket architecture, suggests that the substitutions at different positions impact trichothecenes binding in two different patterns. Moreover, the binding of trichothecenes induced conformation changes of several nucleotide bases in 25S rRNA. This then provides a structural framework for understanding the structure-activity relationships apparent in trichothecenes. This study will facilitate the development of strategies aimed at detoxifying mycotoxins in food and feed and at improving the resistance of cereal crops to Fusarium fungal diseases.

Feedborne Mycotoxins Beauvericin and Enniatins and Livestock Animals.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several species of fungi, including the Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium species. Currently, more than 300 structurally diverse mycotoxins are known, including a group called minor mycotoxins, namely enniatins, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin. Beauvericin and enniatins possess a variety of biological activities. Their antimicrobial, antibiotic, or ionoforic activities have been proven and according to various bioassays, they are believed to be toxic. They are mainly found in cereal grains and their products, but they have also been detected in forage feedstuff. Mycotoxins in feedstuffs of livestock animals are of dual concern. First one relates to the safety of animal-derived food. Based on the available data, the carry-over of minor mycotoxins from feed to edible animal tissues is possible. The second concern relates to detrimental effects of mycotoxins on animal health and performance. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the relation of minor mycotoxins to livestock animals.

Parallel validation of a green-solvent extraction method and quantitative estimation of multi-mycotoxins in staple cereals using LC-MS/MS.

In this study, 15 different mycotoxins were estimated in three staple cereals from selected agro-ecological regions in Nigeria using a 'novel' green extraction method, pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE) in comparison to a conventional solvent extraction method. Discrimination of the results of PHWE and solvent extraction using principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminate analysis (OPLS-DA) did not yield any differential clustering patterns. All maize samples (n = 16), 32% (n = 38) of sorghum and 35% (n = 37) of millet samples were positive for at least one of the 15 tested mycotoxins. Contamination levels for the cereals were higher in the warm humid rain forest region and gradually decreased towards the hot and arid region in the north of the country. The results demonstrate the applicability of PHWE as a possible alternative extraction method to conventional methods of extraction, which are solvent based.

Safety evaluation of an oat grain alkaloid gramine by genotoxicity assays.

Gramine is a natural indole alkaloid that has been isolated from different raw plants occurring mainly in Avena sativa, etc. The study was aimed to investigate the possible in vitro antioxidant, in vitro mutagenic, in vitro antimutagenic, and in vivo genotoxic activity of gramine using ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay, Metal chelating, Ames bacterial reverse mutation test, and the mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay as well as chromosomal aberration. Four concentrations of gramine viz. 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 µg/mL were evaluated for its antioxidant activity in FRAP Assay and Metal Chelating Test. Four concentrations of gramine (1250 µg/plate, 2500 µg/plate, 5000 µg/plate, and 10 000 µg/plate) were employed in Salmonella typhimurium strains to study the mutagenicity in the presence and absence of standard mutagens, 2-aminofluorene (2-AF), sodium azide (SA), and 2-nitrofluorene (2-NF). Three doses, i.e. 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 × the LD50 of gramine (i.e. 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, and 150 mg/kg) were administered orally to either sex of Swiss albino mice for 48 h to study the genotoxic activity in micronucleus assay as well as chromosomal aberration. Gramine showed potent antioxidant activity in both the assay. Gramine at the given dose lacks mutagenicity as well as found to possess antimutagenic efficacy. Interestingly, S9 enzymes increase the antimutagenic activity in a dose-dependent manner. There was no significant increase in the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCEs), as well as no significant difference in the percentage of chromosomal aberrations was observed between the gramine groups and the negative groups but percentage of polychromatic erythrocytes (PCEs) is found to be higher in all the gramine groups. These results indicate significant antioxidant, non-mutagenic as well as non-genotoxic activity of gramine in vitro and in vivo in the given doses.

Dimethylarsenate (DMA) exposure influences germination rates, arsenic uptake and arsenic species formation in wheat.

The contamination of cereals with arsenic (As) is a global health and agronomic concern. This study compared the physiological response, As uptake and As speciation in the grains and above ground tissues of 20 wheat cultivars exposed to 5 mg As kg-1 soil as either arsenate (AsV) or dimethylarsenate (DMA) under glasshouse conditions. Germination rates for the majority of cultivars exceeded 80% for the majority of cultivars when exposed to AsV, but fell significantly to 20-40% when exposed to DMA. For a number of cultivars, grain yields were 20-50% lower when plants were exposed to DMA compared to AsV. Grain As concentrations were between 0.6 and 1.6 µg As g-1 grain across the twenty cultivars when exposed to AsV, whereas grain As concentrations were much higher (2.2-4.6 µg As g-1 grain) when exposed to DMA. When plants were exposed to AsV, 100% of the As present in the grain was found as inorganic As while in plants exposed to DMA, 70-90% of As was present as DMA with the remainder found as inorganic As. DMA is believed to be incorporated by plants via silica (Si) acid channels and assessment of grain Si concentrations demonstrated that up to 40% less Si was accumulated in grains when plants were exposed to DMA. The decreased germination rates and grain yields in the presence of DMA is similar to the symptoms described for straight head disease in rice, which has been linked to DMA exposure. The results presented here indicate some analogous processes occur in wheat to those described in rice. We hypothesise that exposure to DMA may have inhibited Si-metabolism and translocation which resulted in both developmental impairment and possibly an increased susceptibility to soil pathogens.

SURVEILLANCE OF A CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE OF UNIDENTIFIED CAUSE IN A RURAL SETTING OF ETHIOPIA: A CASE STUDY.

BACKGROUND: An outbreak of a chronic liver disease of unidentified cause, known as "Unidentified Liver Disease (ULD)" by local communities was first observed in a rural village in Tigray, northern-Ethiopia in 2001. Little was known about the geographical extent, trend, and epidemiology of the disease. METHODS: The Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) by then Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute (EHNRI), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, World Health Organization, and Tigray Regional Health Bureaue established the ULD surveillance system in 2009 to characterize and monitor trends for this emerging disease and to identify cases for treatment and follow up. A large-scale official training was provided to the surveillance staff on case identification, management and reporting. In absence of a confirmatory test, the system used simple case definitions that could be applied by frontline staff with varying clinical training. To maximize resources, health extension workers already conducting household visits in affected communities identified cases and increased community awareness about the disease. A team was placed in Shire, in close proximity to the outbreak region, to provide support and collect reports from health facilities and district health offices. RESULTS: As of September 2011, a total of 1,033 cases, including 314 deaths were identified. Contamination of locally produced grains with several pyrrolizidine alkaloid producing plants was identified cause of the disease. Staff interviews identified that shortage and turnover of trained staff were major challenges. LESSONS LEARNED: Long term dedication by frontline staff, using simple case definitions to identify cases, and active collection of missing reports were critical for surveillance of this chronic non-infectious disease of unknown cause in a rural, resource-limited setting.

Estudio de los parámetros que afectan al contenido de deoxinivalenol en cereales o alimentos a base de cereales obtenidos en comercios de Valencia (España) / Study of several parameters affecting the deoxynivalenol content in cereal and cereal-based products from Valencia (Spain)

Las micotoxinas son metabolitos fúngicos que aparecen comúnmente como contaminantes de muchos cereales y pueden causar una amplia variedad de efectos tóxicos. En el presente estudio, se analizó un total de 182 muestras de diferentes cereales (arroz, trigo, maíz, avena, espelta, soja y tapioca) obtenidos en establecimientos de la Comunidad Valenciana (España). Se examina la presencia de deoxinivalenol (DON) y se realiza un estudio estadístico de las muestras según el tipo de cultivo (orgánico o convencional), su composición, el tipo de producto y la marca (comercial o blanca) para estimar si estos parámetros influyen en la concentración de DON. Del total de muestras, 111 estaban contaminadas con DON, pero en concentraciones inferiores a los límites permitidos por la legislación europea. Se observó mayor incidencia de DON en muestras de trigo (80%) seguidas de maíz (35%) y arroz (13%), pero sin diferencia significativa (p>0,05) entre el tipo de cereal; ni con la práctica agrícola. Sin embargo, los resultados demostraron que el tipo de producto en el cereal procesado (p<0,001; los productos a base de lluvia y sémola presentaran valores mayores de DON que los fideos), los componentes del alimento procesado (p<0,01; los niveles de DON eran superiores en las rosquilletas de pan simples respecto a las rosquilletas con queso y con chocolate ) y la marca (p<0,05; las marcas blancas contienen más DON que las comerciales) si influyen en los niveles de DON hallados en las muestras de trigo (AU)

Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that commonly appear as contaminants in many cereals and can cause a variety of toxic effects. In this study, a total of 182 samples of different cereals (rice, wheat, corn, oats, spelt, soy and tapioca) obtained in establishments of Valencia (Spain) were analyzed. The presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) was determined and a statistical study of the samples was performed according to the type of crop (organic or conventional), its composition, the type of product and brand (commercial or white) to estimate whether these parameters influence DON concentration. Of the total samples, 111 were contaminated with DON, but their concentration were below the limits allowed by European legislation. Higher DON concentration was observed in wheat samples (80%) followed by corn (35%) and rice (13%), but no significant difference (p> 0.05) between the type of cereal; or harvest conditions. However, the results showed that the type of product in the processing cereal (p <0.001; the rain-based products and grits presented higher values of DON than noodles), processed food components (p <0.01; DON levels were higher in simple snacks than snacks bread with cheese and chocolate) and brand (p <0.05; white brands contain more DON than commercial ones) have related to DON concentration found in wheat samples (AU)

Investigación de residuos de plaguicidas en frutas, verduras y hortalizas y cereales en la Comunidad Autónoma de Aragón durante el periodo 2010-2013 / Investigation of pesticide residues in fruits, vegetables and cereals in Aragon during the period 2010-2013

En este estudio se ha realizado una investigación sobre residuos de plaguicidas en muestras de frutas, verduras y hortalizas y cereales en la Comunidad Autónoma de Aragón durante el periodo 010-2013. Para ello, se ha llevado a cabo un análisis de los resultados obtenidos de dichas muestras, y en aquellas que se ha superado el Límite Máximo de Residuos (LMR), se ha realizado una evaluación del riesgo mediante el modelo de la Autoridad Europea de Seguridad Alimentaria (EFSA) PRIMo. Solamente en un 6% de las 183 muestras analizadas se ha superado el LMR. De éstas, únicamente en un melocotón y en una borraja se han detectado riesgos de toxicidad aguda para los consumidores (AU)

In this study we have conducted research on pesticide residues in samples of fruits, vegetables and cereals in Aragon during the period 2010-2013. To do this, we have conducted an analysis of the results of these samples, and those that have exceeded the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) has been performed a risk assessment by EFSA PRIMo model. Only in 6% of the 183 analyzed samples exceeded the MRL. Of these, only a peach and a borage were detected acute toxicity risks to consumers (AU)

Enfermidades em bovinos associadas ao consumo de resíduos de cervejaria / Cattle diseases associated with consumption of beer residues

A utilização de subprodutos de cervejaria na alimentação de bovinos tem crescido nos últimos anos como uma excelente alternativa na manutenção ou aumento da produtividade na bovinocultura, sobretudo na Região Sudeste. Entre os resíduos mais empregados estão o bagaço de malte oriundo da "cevada" e o "levedo de cerveja", um subproduto líquido que contém álcool, muito utilizado no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. O uso incorreto ou sem os devidos cuidados, bem como o armazenamento de forma inadequada, contudo, podem ser responsáveis por quadros de intoxicação por etanol, neurotoxicose por Aspergillus clavatus, acidose ruminal e botulismo. Esse trabalho tem por intuito alertar para a importância dessas condições como causa de sérios prejuízos econômicos à pecuária e fornecer subsídios para o estabelecimento do diagnóstico, diagnóstico diferencial e profilaxia das mesmas...

The use of brewery by-products in cattle feed has grown in recent years as an excellent alternative for maintenance or increase in cattle productivity especially in Southeastern Brazil. Among the most employed by-products are malted barley waste and brewer's yeast, a liquid by-product that contains alcohol and is widely used in the State of Rio de Janeiro. Careless or incorrect use of these products, as well as inadequate storage, can cause ethanol poisoning, neurotoxicosis by Aspergillus clavatus, ruminal acidosis and botulism. This paper highlights the importance of these conditions as causes of severe economic losses to livestock, and provides support for the establishment of diagnosis, differential diagnosis and prophylaxis...

Tropospheric winds from northeastern China carry the etiologic agent of Kawasaki disease from its source to Japan.

Evidence indicates that the densely cultivated region of northeastern China acts as a source for the wind-borne agent of Kawasaki disease (KD). KD is an acute, coronary artery vasculitis of young children, and still a medical mystery after more than 40 y. We used residence times from simulations with the flexible particle dispersion model to pinpoint the source region for KD. Simulations were generated from locations spanning Japan from days with either high or low KD incidence. The postepidemic interval (1987-2010) and the extreme epidemics (1979, 1982, and 1986) pointed to the same source region. Results suggest a very short incubation period (<24 h) from exposure, thus making an infectious agent unlikely. Sampling campaigns over Japan during the KD season detected major differences in the microbiota of the tropospheric aerosols compared with ground aerosols, with the unexpected finding of the Candida species as the dominant fungus from aloft samples (54% of all fungal strains). These results, consistent with the Candida animal model for KD, provide support for the concept and feasibility of a windborne pathogen. A fungal toxin could be pursued as a possible etiologic agent of KD, consistent with an agricultural source, a short incubation time and synchronized outbreaks. Our study suggests that the causative agent of KD is a preformed toxin or environmental agent rather than an organism requiring replication. We propose a new paradigm whereby an idiosyncratic immune response, influenced by host genetics triggered by an environmental exposure carried on winds, results in the clinical syndrome known as acute KD.

Ochratoxin A and citrinin production by Penicillium verrucosum on cereal solid substrates.

Cereals are among the most vulnerable substrates to mycotoxin contamination. One of the major fungal species colonising the ecosystem of stored grain is Penicillium verrucosum because of its ability to produce ochratoxin A (OTA). Knowledge of favourable environmental conditions promoting fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis seems to be a crucial step towards preventing mycotoxin formation in stored grain. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of temperature and different cereal substrates (wheat, triticale, rye, barley, maize, rice) on fungal growth and OTA and citrinin (CIT) production by a mycotoxin-producing P. verrucosum strain at one moisture content. The correlation between fungal growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis was also investigated. For this purpose, cereal substrates moistened, autoclaved and inoculated with P. verrucosum spores were stored at 10°C, 20°C and 30°C for 40 days. After the storage period, the ergosterol (ERG) content as a fungal growth biomarker and OTA and CIT levels were determined using HPLC. Fungal growth was observed on all cereals at each temperature. Maximum ERG levels were found at 30°C and the values ranged from 401 to 3280 mg kg(-1) of grain. Among tested cereals, the highest ergosterol content was found on rice at all applied temperatures. Accumulation of OTA and CIT was detected in samples stored at 20°C and 30°C, while optimal conditions for the production of both mycotoxins were observed at 20°C. The maximum concentration of OTA (31.9 ± 4.3 (SD) µg kg(-1)) and CIT (74.8 ± 5.7 µg kg(-1)) were found on rice. The ability to biosynthesise OTA and CIT at 10°C was not detected. Analysis of variance showed that single factors, temperature and cereal matrices and their interactions had significant effects on ERG, OTA and CIT levels. Optimal conditions for fungus growth did not coincide with the ones for mycotoxin formation.

Determinación de deoxinivalenol en rosquilletas mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas en tándem / Determination of deoxynivalenol in wheat-based snacks by gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry

El deoxinivalenol (DON) es la micotoxina producida por hongos del género Fusarium que con más frecuencia se detecta en cereales y productos a base de cereales. Por ello, es recomendable realizar una continua monitorización de su incidencia en los alimentos. Este trabajo propone un procedimiento analítico basado en una extracción tipo QuEChERS seguido de una cromatografía de gases acoplada a un detector de triple cuadrupolo para la determinación de DON en rosquilletas. Se analizaron un total de 40 muestras las cuales se dividieron según su composición en dos grupos. El DON fue identificado en el 67,5% de las muestras analizadas con un contenido máximo de 61 μg/kg. A pesar de su incidencia elevada, los niveles de DON hallados fueron muy inferiores a los límites máximos legislados en la actual legislación europea (500 μg/kg). Los resultados obtenidos muestran una baja exposición a DON a través del consumo de esta matriz alimentaria (AU)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most frequently detected mycotoxin in cereal and cereal-based products, and a continuous monitoring of this toxin in foodstuffs is highly desirable. In this sense, a QuEChERS based extraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry detection is proposed to determine DON in an appetizer largely consumed, the wheat-based snacks. In this study, a total of 40 samples were analyzed. The samples were divided into two groups based on the composition. Extraction was carried out with acetonitrile followed by a dispersive solid phase extraction and analyzed for DON content by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ-MS/MS) method. The overall occurrence of samples with DON was 67.5%, with maximum content of 61μg/kg. In spite of its high incidence, DON concentrations found in samples were much lower than the maximum limit established in the current European legislation (500 μg/kg) for the foodstuff evaluated. Data obtained indicated a low exposure to DON through the consumption of this food commodity (AU)

Detección de siete micotoxinas tricotecenos en cereales infantiles mediante extracción QuEChERS y cromatografía líquida espectrometría de masas en tándem / Detection of seven trichothecene mycotoxins in infant cereal foods by QuEChERS extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry

Las micotoxinas tricotecenos se encuentran comúnmente en los cereales, como el trigo, la cebada, el maíz, la avena, el centeno y los productos derivados. Los bebés y los niños pequeños se consideran un grupode alto riesgo debido al gran consumo de alimentos a base de cereales en relación con su peso corporal. En este estudio se ha desarrollado y validado un método rápido, selectivo y sensible para la cuantificación simultánea de 7 micotoxinas tricotecenos (HT-2 toxina, T-2, diacetoxiscirpenol (DAS), deoxinivalenol (DON), 3-acetil-DON, 15-acetil DON, y fusarenon-X (FUS-X) en cereales infantiles. Las micotoxinas se han extraído de las muestras mediante QuEChERS modificado (acrónimo de rápido, fácil, barato, eficaz, robusto y seguro). El método se basa en una única extracción con una mezcla de metanol y acetonitrilo, seguido de una etapa de extracción/partición después de la adición de la sal, y un paso de limpieza utilizando extracción en fase sólida de dispersión (EPS-D). El análisis se llevó a cabo usando cromatografía líquida combinada con un espectrómetro de masas en tándem de triple cuadrupolo (EM/EM) con ionización por electrospray en modo positivos (ESI+) con monitorización de reacción múltiple (MRM). El método validado demostró tener una buena exactitud (>72% de recuperación), reproducibilidad (<10% de desviación estándar relativa interdia) y sensibilidad para las micotoxinas seleccionadas (los límites de detección del método oscilaron entre 0,02 mg kg-1 a 0,15 mg kg-1). Se analizaron 57 muestras de cereales infantiles comercializadas en España revelando la presencia de FUS-X, 15-acetil DON, 3-acetil-DON y T-2 en 9 (15,5%) muestras (AU)

Trichothecene mycotoxins are commonly found in cereals, including wheat, barley, maize, oats, rye and derived products. Infants and young children are considered the highest risk group because their large dietary intake of cereal-based foods in relation to their body weight. In this study, a rapid, selective and sensitive method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of 7 trichothecenes (HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, and fusarenon-X (FUS-X) in infant cereal food. Mycotoxins have been extracted from the samples using a modified QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) procedure. The method was based on a single extraction with a mixture methanol and acetonitrile, followed by an extraction/partitioning step after the addition of salt, and a cleanup step utilizing dispersive solid-phase extraction (D-SPE). The analysis was carried out using a liquid chromatography combined with a triple–quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer (MS/MS) by electrospray ionization in positive ion mode (ESI+) with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). The validated method showed to be accurate (>72% recovery), reproducible (<10% relative standard deviation interday) and sensitive for the selected mycotoxins (method detection limits ranged from 0.02 mg kg-1 to 0.15 mg kg-1). The screening of 57 samples of infant cereal food commercialized in Spain revealed the presence of FUS-X, 15-Acetyl-DON, 3-Acetyl- DON and T-2 in 9 (15.5%) samples (AU)

Assessment of deoxynivalenol (DON) adsorbents and characterisation of their efficacy using complementary in vitro tests.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a prevalent and resistant mycotoxin found in cereals and related products. Adsorbents appear to provide an opportunity to decrease DON absorption in animals but, due to their specificity, it is very difficult to evaluate their actual efficacy. It is pointless to extrapolate results obtained with one mycotoxin to another and even to extrapolate results obtained in vitro in buffer to an in vivo situation. We carried out experiments to characterize the properties of potential DON adsorbents. Initial tests in buffer pH 7 allowed us to focus on six adsorbents: activated charcoal, cholestyramin, Saccharomyces cerevisiae mannans, algal beta-glycan, fungal beta-glycan and leguminous plant. The use of equilibrium sorption models suggested a non-saturated phenomenon and involved variable mechanisms according to the specific material. Subsequent tests with a Caco-2 cell model showed a high reduction in DON cytotoxicity on proliferative intestinal cells and DON absorption by differentiated intestinal cells when adsorbent was added (except for cholestyramin). Otherwise, values were not always in accordance with those obtained in buffer. Our work allowed us to identify five potential DON adsorbents and to propose a complementary in vitro test allowing improved determination of adsorbent properties.

Ergot alkaloids in some rye-based UK cereal products.

UK rye-based cereal products were analysed for six major ergot alkaloids using an in-house-validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method that distinguished -ine and -inine epimers (isomers). Ergot alkaloids were detected in 25 of 28 samples subject to quantification limits of 1-3 µg kg(-1), including all of eleven rye crispbreads that had up to 340 µg kg(-1). Continental-style rye breads contained up to 121 µg kg(-1). Loaf breads, bread-mix flours, and crackers contained only low levels of alkaloids. Ergotamine, ergocristine, and ergosine were the predominant ergot alkaloids in terms of level and frequency of occurrence. There were no apparent differences in the ergot levels between the organic and non-organic products, although the numbers tested were low. Most rye breads had a ratio of -ines to -inines of about 1.5, and rye crispbreads had lower and more variable -ine to -inine ratios.

Could ochratoxin A in food commodities be the cause of chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka?

Ochratoxin A (OA) is a naturally occurring mycotoxin with nephrotoxic properties that can contaminate plant food products. OA concentrations were assessed in commonly consumed food items in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka, where chronic kidney disease is diagnosed at epidemic proportions. Ninety-eight randomly selected food samples were analysed. Mycotoxin was detected in the extract by using a MycoMonitor Ochratoxin A ELISA assay kit (Helica Biosystems Inc., USA). The levels of OA found in these food commodities were below the recommended statutory maximum limit and are unlikely to be a potential risk factor for nephropathy in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka.

Preparados para lactantes y preparados de continuación. Alimentos a base de cereales y alimentos infantiles para lactantes y niños de corta edad / The preparations for nursing and continuance. The cereal-based foods and baby -and infants- foods

Recientemente se han publicado dos Reales Decretos que han modificado parcialmente la reglamentación técnico-sanitaria de 1998, de los alimentos a base de cereales y alimentos infantiles para lactantes y niños de corta edad y de los preparados para lactantes y preparados de continuación que en su momento estudiamos. Incorporan las últimas Directivas CE que hacen referencia, en especial, a los plaguicidas que no deben utilizarse en los productos agrícolas destinados a su elaboración estableciendo límites y requisitos adicionales para su cumplimiento

Recently, two Royal Decrees have been published modifying partially the 1998 technical health regulations on cereal-based foods and baby foods for infants and young children and on infant formulae and followformulae, that we studied some time ago. They include the last EEC Directives that make reference, specially, to the pesticides not to be used in the agricultural products aimed to their elaboration, establishing maximum levels and additional requirements for their enforcement

Extraction of cereal prolamins and their toxicity in coeliac disease.

Simple extraction of prolamins from cereal flour using 70% aqueous ethanol leads to co-extraction of lipids and other secondary products. Treatment of the crude extract with an excess of pure ethanol resulted in the removal of the majority of these compounds. Prolamin extracts obtained following ethanol precipitation showed little difference to products of more complex, multi stage, selective extractions, when compared using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Toxicity tests on enzymic digests of ethanol-precipitated prolamins from coeliac-toxic cereals, coeliac-non-toxic cereals and oats were carried out using a rat liver lysosome assay. The prolamins from the ethanol-precipitated extracts showed greater activity than those extracted using only 70% ethanol for extraction. As the ethanol precipitation method is simple and provides a prolamin extract of sufficient purity for further evaluation, this procedure has been adopted as an alternative to more tedious procedures for preparation of cereal prolamins.

A review on grain and nut deterioration and design of the dryers for safe storage with special reference to Turkish hazelnuts.

Turkey produces about 80% of the total hazelnut crop of the world. About 75% of the production are exported. In Turkey hazelnuts are traditionally sun dried, and may be subject to mold growth and subsequent mycotoxin formation due to prolonged drying time under humid and rainy weather conditions. Drying hazelnuts in a reasonable time after harvest is necessary for mycotoxin-free, high-quality products. In general, nuts and cereals contaminated by the toxins pose a potential hazard not only to the people of the producer countries, but also to people of the importing countries, if they should be regarded as safe by inefficient sampling plans, therefore preventing toxin formation actually benefits very large populations. Deterioration and health hazards associated with toxin contaminated hazelnuts and other nuts and cereals have similar causes and consequences; therefore, deterioration of the nuts and cereals in storage has been reviewed by considering as many grains and nuts as possible, then special reference was made to hazelnuts. Proper preharvest practices followed by proper drying and safe storage reduces the hazards associated with contamination by the toxins. This article reviews the pre- and post-harvest practices, and the grain- and nut-drying systems required for toxin-free products. Because drying is the major unit operation involving this process, the drying systems and the mathematical models required for their design is also discussed.